Cultural value orientation and attitudes toward workplace gender equity across generations: Insights from Delhi and National Capital region, India
Abstract
The present research aims to explore the role of Hofstede’s cultural values and conformity in shaping people’s attitudes toward workplace gender equity (WGE). Furthermore, it explores the mediating role of conformity between cultural values and WGE using the Hayes Process Macro. Results reveal that both cultural values and conformity significantly predict employees’ preference for gender equity, and conformity significantly mediates the relationship between ones’ cultural orientation and their attitudes toward gender parity. Furthermore, gender, sector, and generation-based comparisons on the aforementioned variables indicate significant differences. The study has important implications as it proffers a theoretical model that explains the various contextual factors responsible for employees’ gender-related attitudes.
References
Ahn, N.Y., & Cunningham, G.B. (2017). Cultural values and gender equity on national Olympic committee boards. International Journal of Exercise Science, 10(6):857-874.
Alazmy, S.F., Alotaibi, D.M., Atwan, A.A., Kamel, M.I., & El-Shazly, M.K. (2011). Gender difference of knowledge and attitude of primary health care staff towards domestic violence. Alexandria Journal of Medicine, 47(4):337-341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajme.2011.07.018
Amin, N.B., & Sogra, K.J. (2014). Women Entrepreneurship: A Cross Country Comparative Study [Unpublished Masters Dissertation, Dhaka University]. Dhaka University Institutional Repository, Bangladesh. Available from: http://repository.library.du.ac.bd:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/718/Nadia%20Binte%20Amin.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Last accessed on 2014 Dec 12].
Andrews, R., Boyne, G.A., Law, J., & Walker, R.M. (2009). Centralization, organizational strategy, and public service performance. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 19(1):57-80. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mum039
Badarch, K. (2013). Integrating New Values into Mongolian Public Management [Doctoral Thesis, University of Potsdam]. Available from: https://publishup.uni-potsdam.de/frontdoor/index/index/docId/6685
Bertsch, A., & Warner-Søderholm, G. (2012). Updating cross Cultural Management: Exploring the Relationships between Cultural Values and Gender Inequality Practices. In: Research Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of International Business (AIB), Washington, DC, USA.
Blauth, C., McDaniel, J., Perrin, C., & Perrin, P. (2011). Age-based Stereotypes: A Silent Killer of Collaboration and Productivity. Florida: Achieve Global.
Bledow, R., & Frese, M. (2009). A situational judgment test of personal initiative and its relationship to performance. Personnel Psychology, 62:229-258. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2009.01137.x
Bond, R., & Smith, P.B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s line judgement task. Psychological Bulletin, 119:111-137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.111
Brunell, L., & Burkett, E. (2002). Feminism. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism [Last accessed on 2023 Apr 03].
Budhwar, P.S., & Varma, A. (2011). Doing Business in India: Building Research-based Practice. Oxon: Routledge.
Budin, D.K.A., & Wafa, S.A. (2013). The relationship between gender and ethnicity upon Hofstede’s cultural dimensions among Sabah ethnicities. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 10(6):55-58.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Employee Tenure Summary: 2016. Available from: https://www.bls.gov/news.release/ tenure.nr0.htm [Last accessed on 2017 Jan 28].
Carrasco, A., Francoeur, C., Réal, I., Laffarga, J., & Ruiz-Barbadillo, E. (2012). Cultural differences and Board Gender Diversity. HAL (Le Centre Pour La Communication Scientifique Directe). Available from: https://hal.science/ hal-00937923/document [Last accessed on 2020 Dec 30].
Castro, F.G., & Hernandez, N.T. (2004). A cultural perspective on prevention interventions. In: Velasquez, R.J., Arellano, L.M., & McNeill, B.W., (eds.). The Handbook of Chicana/o Psychology and Mental Health. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.371-397.
Chhokar, J.S., Brodbeck, F.C., & House, R.J. (eds.). (2007). Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of in-depth Studies of 25 Societies. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Clarey, J. (2009). Multi-generational Learning in the Workplace: Overview and Instructional Design Considerations. Available from: http://www.slideshare.net/jclarey/multi-generational-learning?from=share_email_logout3 [Last accessed on 2014 Oct 29].
Davis, L., & Williamson, C.R. (2019). Does individualism promote gender equality? World Development, 123:104627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104627
Demographic and Health Survey. (2007). Democratic Republic of the Congo. Calverton, MD, U.S.A: Ministry of Planning.
Désert, M., & Leyens, J.P. (2006). Social comparison across cultures I: Gender stereotypes in high and low power distance cultures. In: Guimond, S (ed.), Social Comparison and Social Psychology: Understanding Cognition, Intergroup Relations, and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dohi, I., & Fooladi, M.M. (2008). Individualism as a Solution for Gender Equality in Japanese Society. Forum on Public Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table. 2008ed Berlin: Spring, p.1-12.
Eagly, A.H., & Chrvala, C. (1986). Sex differences in conformity: Status and gender role interpretations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10(3):203-220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1986.tb00747.x
Eisner, S.P., & Harvey, M.E.O. (2009). C-change? Generation Y and the glass ceiling. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 74(1):13-28.
Ellis, L., Hershberger, S., Field, E., Wersinger, S., Pellis, S., Geary, D., et al. (2008). Sex Differences: Summarizing More than a Century of Scientific Research. New York: Psychology Press.
Erikson, E.H. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle: Selected Papers, with a Historical Introduction by David Rapaport. New York: International University Press.
Fincher, C.L., Thornhill, R., Murray, D.R., & Schaller, M. (2008). Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism/collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275:1379-1385. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.0094
Frayer, L.F., & Kumar, R.K. (2023). It’s a Mystery: Women in India Drop Out of the Workforce Even as the Economy Grows. NPR. Available from: https://www.npr.org/sections/ goatsandsoda/2023/01/04/1146953384/why-women-in-india-are-dropping-out-the-workforce-even-as-the-economy-grows [Last accessed on 2023 Sep 07].
Granrose, C.S. (1997). The Careers of Business Managers in East Asia. Westport, CT: Quorum.
Griskevicius, V., Goldstein, N.J., Mortensen, C.R., Cialdini, R.B., & Kenrick, D.T. (2006). Going along versus going alone: When fundamental motives facilitate strategic (non) conformity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2):281-294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.281
Gupta, V., Hieronimus, S., Krishnan, M., & Madgavkar, A. (2019). Accelerating Gender Parity: What can Governments do? McKinsey and Company. Available from: https:// www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/ our-insights/accelerating-gender-parity-what-can-governments-do [Last accessed on 2021 Sep 09].
Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). USA: Sage Publications.
Haussman, M., & Sauer, B. (2007). Gendering the State in the Age of Globalization: Women’s Movements and State Feminism in Post-industrial Democracies. Boulder, CO: Rowman and Litdefield.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Beverly Hills CA: Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Abridged Edition). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (2003). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations. Sage Publications: London.
Hofstede, G., & Bond, M.H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16(4):5-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(88)90009-5
Holmberg, I., & Akerblom, S. (1998). Primus Inter pares- Leadership and Culture in Sweden. Stockholm School of Economics. Centre for Advanced Studies in Leadership Research Paper Series, p.1.
House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M.J., Dorfman, P.W., & Gupta, V. (eds.). (2004). Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE, Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Investopedia. (n.d.). Power Distance Index. Available from: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/power-distance-index-pdi.asp [Last accessed on 2014 Dec 30].
Jobvite. (2017). Millennial Men and Women: The Way they Work. Available from: https://www.jobvite.com/ wp-content/uploads/2017/07/millennial-men-and-women-report-jobvite-job-seeker-nation.pdf [Last accessed on 2021 Sep 18].
Karl, K.A., & Sutton, C.L. (1998). Job values in today’s workforce: A comparison of public and private sector employees. Public Personnel Management, 27(4):515-527. https://doi.org/10.1177/009102609802700406
Kashima, Y., Yamaguchi, S., Kim, U., Choi, S.C., Gelfand, M.J., & Yuki, M. (1995). Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5):925-937. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.925
Keating, M.A., & Martin, G.S. (2007). Societal culture and leadership in the Republic of Ireland. In: Chhokar, J.S., Brodbeck, F., & House, R.J. (eds.). Managerial Cultures of the World: GLOBE in-depth Studies of the Cultures of 25 Countries. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p.361-396.
Kim, E. (2005). Korean American parental control: Acceptance or rejection? Ethos, 33(3):347-366. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2005.33.3.347
Kim, H.S., & Markus, H.R. (1999). Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity? A cultural analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77:785-800. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.785
Lee, I., Hu, F., & Li, W. (2020). Cultural factors facilitating or inhibiting the support for traditional household gender roles. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 51(5):333-352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022120929089
Long, R. (2011). Gender Inequality. Available from: https:// dmc122011.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/chap-09. htm [Last accessed on 2014 Oct 26].
Malaquias, F.F.O., Matumoto, P.A., & Valadão, V.M. (2022). Women, business and the law: Does culture matter? Global Business Review, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509221108822
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98:224-253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224
Mathur, P., Aycan, Z., & Kanungo, R.N. (1996). Work cultures in Indian organizations: A comparison between public and private sector. Psychology and Developing Societies, 8(2):199-222. https://doi.org/10.1177/097133369600800202
Matsumoto, D., & Kupperbusch, C. (2001). Idiocentric and allocentric differences in emotional expression, experience, and the coherence between expression and experience. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 4:113-131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2001.00080.x
Meehl, P.E., & Hathaway, S.R. (1946). The K factor as a suppressor variable in the MMPI. Applied Psychology, 30:525-564. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024663
Milner, L.M., & Collins, J.M. (2000). Sex-role portrayals and the gender of nation. Journal of Advertising, 29(1):67-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2000.10673604
Nordstokke, D., & Zumbo, B.D. (2010). A new nonparametric Levene test for equal variances. Psicológica, 31(2):401-430.
Nurmi, J., Poole, M., & Kalakoski, V. (1994). Age differences in adolescent future-oriented goals, concerns, and related temporal extension in different sociocultural contexts. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23:471-487. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01538040
O’Connor, D.B., & Shimizu, M. (2002). Sense of personal control, stress and coping style: A cross-cultural study. Stress and Health, 18:173-183. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.939
Olejnik, S., & Algina, J. (2000). Measures of effect size for comparative studies: Applications, interpretations, and limitations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25:241-286. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1040
Parment, A. (2011). Generation Y in Consumer and Labour Markets. New York: Routledge.
Parry, E. (2014). Generational Diversity at Work: New Research Perspectives. Oxon: Routledge.
Patterson, P.G., Cowley, E., & Prasongsukarn, K. (2006). Service failure recovery: The moderating impact of individual-level cultural value orientation on perceptions of justice. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 23(3):263-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2006.02.004
Paul, P., Roy, A., & Mukhopadhyay, K. (2006). The impact of cultural values on marketing ethical norms: A study in India and the United States. Journal of International Marketing, 14(4):28-56.
Pettigrew, T. (2014). Why Millennials are Nonconformists. Available from: https://www.tru-access.com/tru-access-blog/why-millennials-are-nonconformists [Last accessed on Nov 2014 Nov 05].
Pew Research Center. (2013). On Pay Gap, Millennial Women near Parity - for Now. Available from: https://www. pewresearch.org/social-trends/2013/12/11/on-pay-gap-millennial-women-near-parity-for-now [Last accessed on 2021 Sep 18].
Pimpa, N. (2012). Amazing Thailand: Organizational culture in the Thai public sector. International Business Research, 5(11):35-42. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v5n11p35
Plueddemann, J.E. (2009). Leading across Cultures Effective Ministry and Mission in the Global Church. Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press.
Prasad, P., & Baron, J. (1996). Measurement of Gender-role Attitudes, Beliefs, and Principles. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania.
Putney, N.M., & Bengtson, V. (2004). Intergenerational relations in changing times. In: Mortimer, J.T., & Shanahan, M.J. (eds). Handbook of the Life Course. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Putney, N.M., Bengtson, V., & Wakeman, M.A. (2007). The family and the future: Challenges, prospects, and resilience. In: Pruchno, R.A., & Smyer, M.A. (eds.). Challenges of an Aging Society: Ethical Dilemmas, Political Issues. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Rao, T.N. (1968). Development of generalized conformity tendency test. Research Bulletin, 4:21-31.
Ridgeway, C.L. (1992). Gender, Interaction, and Inequality. NY: Springer-Verlag Inc.
Robbins, S.P., Judge, T.A., Millet, B., & Jones, M. (2010). OB: The Essentials. Sydney, Australia: Pearson Australia.
Rocheleau, B., & Wu, L. (2002). Public versus private information systems: Do they differ in important ways? A review and empirical test. The American Review of Public Administration, 32(4):379-397. https://doi.org/10.1177/027507402237866
Rosenthal, J. (1973). Women made Two‐thirds of Gains of Jobs in 1960’s. The New York Times. Available from: https:// www.nytimes.com/1973/02/12/archives/women-made-twothirds-of-gains-of-jobs-in-1960s-nomenclature-a.html [Last accessed on 2023 Apr 03].
Scott, P. (1993). The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making. U.S: McGraw-Hill.
Sharma, J.P., & Bajpai, N. (2010). Organizational commitment and its impact on job satisfaction of employees: A comparative study in public and private sector in India. International Bulletin of Business Administration, (9):7-19.
Smith, P.B., & Bond, M.H. (1999). Social Psychology across Cultures. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.
Squires, J. (2007). The New Politics of Gender Equality. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Stedham, Y., & Yamamura, J. (2002). National Cultural Characteristics: A Comparison of Gender Differences in Japan and the U.S. In: Presented at Hawaii International Conference on Business, Honolulu, HI.
Steelcase Workspace Futures. (2011a). Gen Y: India. Available from: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/ view/26722468/gen-y-india-steelcase [Last accessed on 2019 Nov 23].
Steelcase Workspace Futures. (2011b). Gen Y: United States. Available from: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/ view/26722418/gen-y-united-states-steelcase [Last accessed on 2019 Dec 07].
Ștefanovici, S. (2009). Gender and Individualism in American Culture. In: The Proceedings of the International Conference on European Integration. Between Tradition and Modernity. 3rd ed. Editura Universității Petru Maior, Tg. Mureș, p.632-643, (10p). Available from: https://www.upm. ro/facultati_departamente/stiinte_litere/conferinte/situl_ integrare_europeana/lucrari3/sg/59_stefanovici_gender.pdf [Last accessed on 2014 Dec 12].
Sverko, B. (1999). The work importance study: Recent changes of values in Croatia. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48:89-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999499377682
Teck, G.H., & Hennessy, J. (2011). Generations and Leadership. Available from: https://www.cscollege.gov.sg/knowledge/ pages/generations-and-leadership.aspx [Last accessed on 2014 Oct 24].
Terzi, H., Özdemir, F., & Özkan, T. (2022). The relationship between gender gap in employment and Hofstede’s culture dimensions depending on country scores. Studies in Psychology, 42(2):473-507. https://doi.org/10.26650/SP2021-941054
Thien, L.M., Thurasamy, R., & Razak, N.A. (2013). Specifying and assessing a formative measure for Hofstede’s cultural values: A Malaysian study. Quality and Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, 48(6):3327-3342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-013-9959-5
Tolbize, A. (2008). Generational differences in the Workplace. Research and Training Center on Community Living, University of Minnesota. Available from: https://rtc.umn. edu/docs/2_18_Gen_diff_workplace.pdf [Last accessed on 2014 Nov 02].
Triandis, H.C. (1994). Theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of collectivism-individualism. In: Kim, U., Triandis, H.C., Kagitcibasi, C., Choi, S.C., & Yoon, G., (eds.). Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method, and Application. Thousand Oaks: Sage, p.41-51.
Trommsdorff, G. (1995). Parent-adolescent relations in changing societies: A cross-cultural study. In: Noack, P., & Hofer, M., (eds.). Psychological Responses to Social Change: Human Development in Changing Environments. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. p.189-218.
Twenge, J.M. (2010). A review of the empirical evidence on generational differences in work attitudes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2):201-210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-010-9165-6
Twenge, J.M., & Campbell, W.K. (2009). The Narcissism Epidemic: Living in the Age of Entitlement. New York: Free Press.
Valentine, S. (2001). Development of a brief multi-dimensional aversion to women who work scale. Sex Roles, 44(11/12):773-787. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012206632272
Venkatraman, S., & Reddy, P.G. (2012). Gender differences and similarities on the cultural dimension of individualism and collectivism: A study on public sector bank employees. Indian Journal of Education and Information Management, 1(2):55-63.
Verick, S.V., & International Labour Organization. (2014). Women’s Labour Force Participation in India: Why is it so Low? Available from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/ genericdocument/wcms_342357.pdf [Last accessed on 2023 Sep 07].
Weston, M. (2001). Coaching generations in the workplace. Nursing Administration Quarterly, 25(2):11-21. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006216-200101000-00005
World Development Report. (2012). Gender Equality and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank Press. Available from: https://documents1.worldbank.org/ curated/en/986861468149953206/pdf/576270WDR0SecM 1e0only1910BOX353773B.pdf [Last accessed on 2014 Dec 12].
Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lenartovicz, T. (2011). Measuring Hofstede’s five-Dimensions of Cultural Values at the Individual Level: Development and Validation of CVSCALE. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23(3):193-210.
You, S., Hong, S., & Ho, H.Z. (2011). Longitudinal effects of perceived control on academic achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 104(4):253-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671003733807
Zehra, F., & Sarim, M. (2017). A comparative study of gender equality in public and private sector boards in India. South Asian Journal of Marketing and Management Research, 7(5):25-39. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-877X.2017.00026.1
Copyright (c) 2023 Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
